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Contributions can be sent to the address below  in either hard copy or disk format, and work should be accompanied by an xP$address and phone number. #Xw P7[hXP# $ #SEMA #NF 217 uVictoria College, University of Toronto *"Toronto, Ontario #Canada \#M5S 1K7 !ISSN # 1183 160X $ EDITOR: Christopher Woodill )(email: cwoodill@epas.utoronto.ca) $ WACover Photo courtesy of the editor's camera, scanned in by{(the latest in computer equipment we could find. $  Yf0$?$#Xw P7[hXP#Hfxxx$xxH  a<9# P7,P# SEMA and The Information Highway #Xw P7[hXP#  Christopher Woodill (Editor) J y! 9 d dPddcomputr.wpg 9 ycwoodill@epas.utoronto.ca $!!$& d  !!The socalled information !!highway is being built as we !!speak, and SEMA is making !!its way to being a pitstop !!on the highway. At the p!!present, the greatest form of !!this new way of T!!communicating is the !!Internet. The Internet is a !!collection of networks that !!encompass millions of D!!people worlwide. What hstarted as primarily a research and military network has blossomed into a virtual world where one can talk to friends,find the latest news, play virtual games, and so on.  One of the most easily accessed and popular forms of interacting with the Internet is through electronic mail (email).  Emailing is similar to regular mail, but the message can travel from one end of the globe to another in minutes. Furthermore, many different forms of information can be transferred through email: sound, pictures, text, and even video can be sentthrough the internet.  For many, Internetspeak is a foreign language. In this short article, I will not try to explain every detail of the Internet, nor @will I explain how to get access to the internet. There are several good resources for such things, and in most major cities, there are ways to get access to the internet for a fee, andXAxxx3P!!d .X  Y0#$Notesă  1. Barthes, Roland. "The Photographic Message", found in Y0!!Responsibility of Form (New York: Hill and Wong, 1985), !!p. 5. !!  Yv0 l!!2. Eco, Umberto. "Critique of the Image", found in Thinking Y_0 (!!Photography (London: MacMillan Education Ltd., 1982),!!Burgin, ed., p. 33. !!  !!3. Barthes, Roland. "The Photographic Message", found in Y 0 <!!Responsibility of Form (New York: Hill and Wong, 1985), p.!!914. !!  Y 0 l!!4. Eco, Umberto. "Critique of the Image", found in Thinking Y0 (!!Photography (London: MacMillan Education Ltd., 1982),Burgin, ed., p. 33.  H5. By simulation, I am not referring to Baudrillard's notion of simulation, but rather, the use of it in computer jargon to meana system which models reality.  6. Interface: a set of tools for interacting with the computer Henvironment. An interface includes the input device, such as ta joystick, mouse, or keyboard, as well as the graphicalenvironment within the computer program. ~xxx $*:06$xx3P!!d .~  pback. Many games now actually have an ending: the final scene is played, and than the credits roll up. To get to the end is a sweet victory for the player, but it is also adissappointment because the contest is now over.  In the world of video games, the analogon serves as the 0basis for entertainment. It has not always been that way, and lthe video game "tradition" must always be kept in mind when understanding how people interact with video games today.  $Even though the analogon is what is being sold, it is still sold Y 0 |through the medium of a coded system of rules similar to a game. Even with the latest video games, which feature movie quality and stereo CD sound, they still are dependent on the game mechanism: without a good game behind it, the video laspect will not sell. Unlike the cinema, the drama is built into the competition and the interaction, not into the analogon itself.  XThe analogon serves as a reward for a few minutes work.  The suspense is actively in you: it is not displayed for you, but 0you live it as you are playing. This is what makes interactive media so promising: if we can make the suspense built into the xinteraction, than it is the person playing with the medium who resolves it, not the image on the screen. The analogon then 0serves as a true worldcreator, but the interaction through thegame allows the user to become part of the drama.  Y0 "xxxD"  in some areas, free of charge. Generally, if you are connected with some kind of academic or government institution, you canget an Internet account fairly easily.  How does the internet affect SEMA? This year, we are Tincluding the email addresses of the authors who have them.Furthermore, we are depositing a text copy of SEMA in an  archive on the internet. This will allow anyone who has access to get a free copy of SEMA through the Internet withouthaving the hassle of regular mail.   SEMA will now be deposited in an archive of ezines P(electronic magazines) where it can be accessed in thefollowing ways:  CO FTP etext.archive.umich.edu /pub/Zines/sema CO  Gopher etext.archive.umich CO .edu /pub/Zines/sema CO  Send email to the editor at cwoodill@epas.utoron CO to.ca CO    We hope that with such open access, SEMA will be read bymore people.  8For information on the Internet, I highly recomend thefollowing books: LLq  Y0 Braun, Eric. The Internet Directory. Toronto: Random HouseLLqof Canada, 1994.  Y|0 LaQuey, Tracy and Ryer, Jeanne C. The Internet Companion: Ye0 LLLqA Beginner's Guide to Global Networking. New York:LLqAddisonWesley Publishing Company, 1993. H xxx$tRX0<xxH  The Internet may be new to people now, but the population of users is growing at a phenominal rate. Within the next year, lthose who do not have an account now will have one. For allthose who are new to the experience, good luck.  Other forms of new technology have been incorporate into the Xmaking of SEMA. With scanning equipment we can now duplicate and edit pictures. Hopefully, in future issues, we will be able to incorporate sound and video into our document,  so that we can present SEMA in a multimedia format. This @will allow us to explore issues of media, culture and othersemioticsrelated issues in a whole new way. " xxx "   One of the more recent marketing schemes is what I call the three round elimination. There seems to be a delicate balance between winning and losing: if one loses in the first round, one feels ripped off. Furthermore, one does not get an accurate assessment of how the game plays: without a few minutes to `try to grasp the rules of the game, the videogame will just be pfrustrating. What video game manufacturers seem to have <done is design the game in such a way that there is a practice round at the beginning of each game (three rounds). If we take  our example of Mortal Kombat II, the video game gives you almost exactly three rounds of play to get used to the game.  After you reach that third round, the difficulty increases enormously, usually ending your game. This of course is a $brilliant use of the analogon: it is used in the same way that a movie preview is used. In order to get the past the preview, you have to keep sinking in increasingly more money. The `first three rounds give you an analogon teaser, enough so that Yy0you want to see the rest of the scenes.))k  In the future, the cinematic analogon will be replaced with a Tvirtual one. However, the same type of system will probably remain. Remember, the key to marketing video games is to keep charging tolls for going father, so that each step of the way is a contest to see more of the scene. The same will be true for commercial virtual reality: one will begin to see virtual reality versions of Mortal Kombat II, where in order to see the 0final scene one will have to win a contest first. The idea of a 0freeflowing world where one can explore with no limits is a Hmyth that will die when virtual reality becomes commercially $viable. The only way to keep making profits is to restrict the flow of information. On the other hand, it is also the only way of keeping the game player interested. One has to build in thedrama into the game so that the player wants to keep coming H xxx$ ev$ZxxH new scenes.  One of the most telling examples of this new dominance of the analogon is that people spend almost as much time watching others play video games as they do playing them. Because of this new enjoyment of the image, one needs only to watch others play in order to get the thrill of discovery, to receive the 0entertainment of seeing new scenes. Conversely, the game Tplay has to remain fast and efficient: if the analogon displaces <the code, than no one will play. Playability has not ceased to be a factor, it has just been joined with the seduction by the analogon. In new video games, one gets the speed, control, Tand excitement of the old style video game, but also receivesa reward for playing in the form of a cinematic analogon.  Some video games are strictly excuses for buying the cinematic  analogon. They act as gambling centres where the prize is a few seconds of a scene. One example of this is LaserStrip Poker. The game is absolutely trivial: a banal version of poker. What is really important is the reward for winning: a continuation of a scene played by a laser disc of a person Tstripping. What is revealing is that when one loses, the laser disc just plays backwards, so that the dress flies from the  ground back onto the woman. What one is purchasing is not the pleasure of the game: the game only acts as a system of bringing in revenue. In order to get the woman completely Xstripped it takes about five or six dollars worth of quarters.  The game is a complete tease: while one can make the person on the screen to take off some of the clothes with promises for more, everytime you make an error (which when playing a pchance game like poker is quite often), she puts a piece of clothing back on. Thus, in order to see the entire scene, onemust consistently win, which is incredibly difficult." xxx"  a<# P7,P# Communication #Xw P7[hXP# Dr. Thomas A. Sebeok  0All living things whole organisms as well as their parts are Dinterlinked in a highly ordered fashion. Such order, or Y0 dorganization, is maintained by communication. Therefore, communication is that criterial attribute of life which retards the disorganizing effects of the Second Law of Thermodymics; that is, communication tends to decrease entropy locally. In the broadest way, communication can be regarded as the `transmission of any influence from one part of a living system Y& 0 to another part, thus producing change. It is messages that arebeing transmitted.  The constitution of messages forms the subject matter of Xsemiotics: their ebb and flow, how they are organized and  styled, how they get from here to there and back again, how Y0 they are formulated and packaged by the orginating source, and how they are unwrapped and processed when received by the Yr0 terminal destination. How does the context in which the entire <transaction takes place control the makeup of messages, theirgeneration and interpretation?  Semiotics is further concerned with two sets of interrelated `historical problems: the course of development of appropriate `mechanisms for processing messages by individual organisms Y0 Xin ontogenesis; and the evolution of such mechanisms in a Y0 Dspecies in phylogenesis. Finally, the historiography of communication studies has become a focus of attention in itsown right.  Yd0The process of message exchanges, or semiosis, is anHdxxx$ ̓xxxH  indispensable characteristic of all terrestial life forms. It is this `capacity for containing, replicating, and expressing messages, of extracting their signification, that, in fact, distinguishes them more from the nonliving except for human agents, such as dcomputers and robots, that can be programmed to simulate communication than any other traits often cited. The study $of the twin processes of communication and signification can be regarded as ultimately a branch of the life science, or as belonging in large part to nature, in some part to culture, which is, of course, also a part of nature. When dissolved into their elementary constituents, messages are found to perfuse the entire biosphere, the system of directed and responsivematter and energy flow which is the entirety of life on Earth.  lAn implication of this way of looking at communication is that the capacity for message generation and message consumption, hwhich are commonly attributed only to humans, is here Xassumed to be present in the humblest forms of existence, $whether bacteria, plants, animals, or fungi, and, moreover, in <their component parts, such as subcellular units (for example, Lmitochondria), cells, organelles, organs, and so forth. The global genetic code, too, can (as it has been) quite fruitfully <analyzed in communicational terms: the message orginates in a molecule, the master blueprint called DNA, its end being marked by a protein. The intricate interplay of nucleic acid Tand protein, the essence of life on earth, provides aprototypical model for all forms of communication.  While thus widening its angle of vision to encompass a great `deal more, attention here is focused on messages emitted and `received by human beings. All human messages fall into two Tdistinct categories: verbal messages and nonverbal messages. " xxx"Ԍ game simulates the activity of driving a car (a relatively peaceful endevour, providing one doesn't crash), Mortal Kombat II simulates a martial arts style combat to the death.  `What makes Mortal Kombat II interesting in our discussion of  the use of the analogon is that it uses the cinematic analogon pboth as part of the action of the gameplay and as a reward system for winning. In Mortal Kombat II, there are several 0different characters to choose from, each of which have their own particular look, style and strengths. The differences <create a relationship between the visual and the code. There hare differences in the codes of each characters in that a $combination of buttons and movements of a joystick produce different results. But there are also differents in the analogon: once the code has been entered, than the analogon takes over, displaying instantly the result of the code, a couple seconds of scene which results in the players character punching, kicking |or jumping over his or her opponent. This analogon is real enough to simulate even the unwanted parts of violence: the character on the screen becomes bruised, beaten and bleeds allover the floor when attacked successfully.  After winning a round, Mortal Kombat II gives you a bonus scene: the ability to watch your character slaughter your opponent. Each character has a different killing style: one kills pby ripping his opponents arms out of their sockets, another lturns into a dragon and chomps his opponents head off. What keeps people coming back is the constant search for new cinematic analogons, for new scenes. If one has mastered one character's killing move, there are still several other characters who each have new scenes. At fifty cents an attempt, one can see the marketing genius in this. Furthermore, as one reaches higher levels in the game, one gets the priviledge of competingagainst brand new opponents; in other words, we get to view H xxx$  xxH  game play, or as a reward system which acts outside the game.  In today's videogames, both are used. The analogon here means a particular image or set of images that form a unique and perfect transcription of reality. While PacMan was <almost totally noncontextual, mainly because the technology <at the time could not effectively fabricate a context, the latest @video games take place in a particular time and place, in a highly specific context. The characters in these latest video <games have specific personalities, and exhibit those different styles on screen. Only with an imaging system created not by Ha code but by a cinematic analogon can we achieve this levelof realism.  xOne must remember that the code has not departed: the game still is the basis of all video games. The cinematic analogon  acts to create the reality of the game, but does not change its purpose. The whole style of the game shifts from one of interacting with markers on a gameboard to interacting with a movie. If we return to our example of carracing games, the game now takes on the feel of an interactive movie. The simulation is of a high enough quality that it feels real, and the images on the screen support this feel. In the latest version of the carracing concept, one drives through various "scenes", and part of the enjoyment of the game is in watching out for scenery. On the sides of the road are beaches, rocks, farms, and so on all of which are simulated: they all look real. These scenes are extraneous to the game, but they occursimultaneously as gameplay, an instant feedback reward.   One of the most controversial videogames on the market is entitled Mortal Kombat II (even the name is frightening). What makes it controversial is that while a carracing video "7xxx"  @Language as the array of verbal messages is collectively Y0 0referred to has, so far, been found only in the genus Homo, Y0 pof which only our own subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens, remains extant. Biologists would thus say that language is a l"speciesspecific" trait. The study of this unique yet "species universal" attribute of humanity, language, is the subject matter <of linguistics, which is one of the most sophisticated, partiallyformalized branches of semiotics.  Y50 $A message is a sign, or consists of a string of signs.  According to a classic definition, a sign is something that Y 0 dstands for something else (aliquid stat pro aliquo) for some Y 0 Dorganism, and has two facets: a sensible signifier or a perceptible impact on at least one of the sense organs of the interpretting organism and something intelligible (the content) Y0 being signified by the former. The signified (also called the designatum) is capable of being translated, whereas thesignifier (also called the sign vehicle) is not.  xThe human's rich repertoire of nonverbal messages by sharp contrast with language never constituted a unified field of study, and therefore lacks a positive integrative label. What all Y0  nonverbal messages have in common is merely that they are Y0 not linguistic. This negative delineation has led to xterminological chaos in the sciences of communication, which dis manifoldly compounded when the multifarious message $systems employed by the millions of species of languageless creatures, as well the communicative process inside organisms,are additionally taken into account.  Nonverbal messages can, however, be distinguished from one another according to several criteria of semiotic relevance. Asfurther discussed below, this point can be illustrated by goingH.xxx$ xxH  back to a classic discussion foud in the Hippocratic writings on medical communication, describing how the physician, relying on the patient's verbally and nonverbally reported "symptoms" combined with the "signs" observed by the physician, identifies a disease ("makes a diagnosis") and forecasts its eventual course ("make a prognosis"). In other words, a symptom belongs to a category of signs the physician elicits from the lpatent (for example, the verbal string "I have a stomachache," Lor a moan accompanying a pained facial expression as the patient points to his abdomen, or both), whereas a "sign", as this term is used in a clinical context, belongs to a category which derives from the physicians's own experience (for lexample, when the physicians palpates the patient's abdomen and feels a tumour). A proper diagnosis is arrived at by a 0summation of both reported symptoms (or "subjective" signs)and observed ("objective") signs.  The binary classification of signs (in the generic sense) into subjective symptoms and objective signs (in the specific sense) in only one of many. Cassirer, for example, had a quite ddifferent binary classification, signs and symbols, the latter being a characteristic only of humans. The most widely accepted classication today, however, is not binary but one based on a trinary principle, established by Peirce. Peirce's classication is complex and has many farreaching ,ramifications, but it is rooted in a threeway distinction Y0 between icon and index, with both opposed to symbol, all ofwhich are really different facets of one generic sign.  The context determines the predominance of this or that facet.  Thus the "Stars and Stripes" is a sign in which the iconic aspect is paramount when the interpreter focuses on thenumber of stars (representing the fifty states now composing ""xxx"  the real and the imaginary. In the early 1980's (which was Y0 incidentally when he first wrote Simulations), such a definition would not properly describe video game simulations nor would it today. A simulation, in computer terms, is a Y0 <computer program that modelled reality. The technology has never yet been able to simulate anything well enough to mimic reality to any degree of fooling people into thinking they areactually in a different world.  One example of a simulation is the carracing type video game.  One of the first was entitled PolePosition. Like all carracing games, pollposition came equipped with a steering wheel, gas Xpedal, break pedal, and a gear shift. This introduction of a Y 0 xnew interface6 helped to create the simulation effect with real xobjects: you drove the fictional car with a real steering wheel.  Certainly, the simulation would not have been as successful had one had to drive the car with cursor keys or a joystick.  The object of the game was to complete the course before time ran out and without crashing. What is different about Pole YM0 position from Pong was that the game modelled reality, or at least modelled a cinematic reality. For the first time, 4perspective was introduced, and the road curved over the horizon hopefully in a similar manner to regular driving, and cars would periodically come from behind the horizon into the $field of view. Like most video games, as we shall see when talk of recent video games, the poleposition concept has been Ximproved over the course of about ten years, but the basic modelling processing remains the same. We shall take up this example again when we talk of the cinematization of videogames.  When one talks of the use of the analogon in video games, onenotices it in two different ways, as either part of the actual H$xxx$ txxH  exhausted from playing the original would come back and play a slightly revised version. PacMan was limited to four  movements: up, down, left and right. It was a game that had almost frills, except that it had a funny shaped playing piece xwhich led to an enormous merchandising run resulting in Pac Man breakfast cerial, a PacMan cartoon, a roller skating songcalled PacMan fever, and PacMan underware.  What started with Ms. PacMan, and will become important in our discussion of the analogon later on, was the introduction of $scenes which acted as a reward system for achieving various goals in the game. After completing three stages, the screen ldisplayed a scene where Ms. PacMan and PacMan met and kissed. This scene had nothing to do with actual game play, land served only to reward thA |jddpacman.wpgd |t S0#XhP^6U qXP#Figure 2: PacMan# Xx3_ @DUwX@# e player by giving him a context, $ 4$A$narrative, and scene played $ XAout before him. The scenes $ dAwere little more than simple $ Acartoons. But this is where $ Athe analogon would be $ Aintroduced, as a cinematic $ Areward system for successfulAgame play. A  $ AWhile PacMan was really $ Aan overly complicated $ Aversion of a board game, it $ Awas the simulation that |began to bring reality into the world of video games. A $simulation, as defined by Baudrillard, is a hyperreal activity, where one is so seduced by the simulation that one cannot tellthe difference between X7 xxx3֢A jd` ` ` ^ ]X  Tthe Union) or the number of stripes (representing the thirteen states that origally formed the Union). If the flag is used for signaling, for example, in a race, or to reflect the country in which a boat is registered, the indexical aspect becomes (ascendant. If, however, the flag is ceremonially raised or lowered, say at a funeral, we consider it to be primarilysymbolic.  The standpoint of Hippocrates whom medical historians have sometimes reverentially also labelled "the father and master of Hall semiotics" hinges on an ancient but still widely prevalent  distinction drawn between two types of messages: 4"conventional" and "natural". Conventional messages are those whose power to signify is thought to depend on some @prior agreement, presumed to have been reached at some Atemporal juncture and thereafter accepted as a matter of HAcustom. Such are, most importantly, messages cast in spoken Aor written utterances, but also frequently messages that are Aembodied in the shape of a parochial gesture, a tradition dAexercised and understood by one group of persons but not Anecessarily by its neighbors. The meaning of a conventional Amessage, whether verbal or not, is invariably circumscribed byAa time and a place. A  $ASocalled natural messages, on the other hand, have a power Ato signify the same things at all times and in all places Aprecisely because their interpretation does not presuppose a Afamiliarity with the conventions of a particular group. After Hdescribing certain nonverbal symptoms, Hippocrates went on to say that they "prove to have the same significance in Lybia, YN0 <in Delos, and in Scythia" (Prognostic XXV). Given the quasi universality of that class of nonverbal messages physicians callsymptoms, he deems it evident "that one should be right in the~" xxx$   xx3֢A jd` ` ` ^ ]~  0vast majority of instances, if one learns them well and knowshow to estimate and appreciate them properly."  By contrast, what is sometimes designated as a ("multimessage," or conventional gesture, is one that has a number of totally distinct meanings, the choice of interpretation 4depending on the time and place. Thus all Americans are `familiar with the raisedhand gesture, such that the thumb and forefinger delineate a circle, which essentially signifies that something is OK. In other countries, however, the same configuration may mean something totally different: for example, "money" in Japan, "zero" or "worthless" in the South of France. In other places, the same configuration may convey an obsene comment or an insult, as it did Greece more than two thousand years ago. Again, in yet other areas, it maysuggest nothing at all.  These examples illustrate just one feature by which human @nonverbal messages can be distinguished in terms of their Dtemporal and spatial distribution. Other criteria will bementioned below.  It is convenient to being a general preliminary consideration of messages where they are assumed to originate. Their inception can be pictured as in a box, designated the source. A message Y0 <can now be provisionally defined as a selection out of a code by a source. The concept of a code will be explained later, but  one should immediately note that many of the rules ofprobability governing this act of selection are unknown.  <The source box is nothing more than a formal model used for facilitating the comprehension of hypothetical constructs: givena certain input, one must, more or less, guess at what takes "" xxx"  own identity seperate from the context of playing the game.  `One of the greatest examples of this was PacMan. PacMan evolved as a mass phenomenon which would not be duplicated 0until the arrival of Nintendo's Mario Brothers. As illustrated by Figure 2, Pacman was little more than a circle with a piece of it cut out, but that shape began to have an identity when the shape became a head with a mouth, eating up everything in sight. The PacMan image is not an analogon: it is completely Xfabricated from geometric shapes. But it is iconic in that it represents the human face, albeit distorted and simplified. If  one has ever played PacMan, one realizes that the shape really has no use in terms of game play except as a marker for the position on a board (the maze). The pacman could have been left a block, and the game would play exactly the same way.  But having a PacMan created a character that could be |expanded outside of the game, in order to give the game a context. It would be the same as if we took the common game  of checkers and gave each peice character names, and mourned ptheir death when they were taken off the board. PacMan pbecame a hit because of its playability, but also because of $image considerations such as colour (it was one of the first to xbe in colour), design and context. While Pong was based in a faceless world, PacMac created a character in a fantasticworld.  As PacMan became more popular, there were added new characters to the PacMan family, included babyPacMan and Ms. PacMan. The only difference between these new games and the original PacMan was a new playing board (the mazes were different), and minimal changes to the character (The lonly difference between Ms. PacMac and PacMan was that $she had a bow on her head). At the time, this was enough tokeep the PacMan empire strong, as people who had been H  xxx$  t* t*xxH  type of game were simulations of various sports such as baseball or football, as well as combat scenarios. It was this stage which really created the drive behind video game <production, because what had been created was the ability to (create a context. Instead of meaningless blips the images xbecame characters in a fictional context. Although one would ,not call them analogons, one could begin to see iconic \resemblances between the images and simulated objects: people started to look like people, airplanes began to appear as airplanes, and so on. Although there was little ability to Hpresent anything that captured reality in the sense of Barthes'analogon, the motivation for that goal was evolving.  One of the great booms in video game production for the home lcame with the Atari 2600, which came out around 1982. This was the first ever Nintendo type system, and with different  cartridges one could have a supply of several hundred video Hgames in the comfort of your own home. With this increased market, there was increasing needs for differences between games: in order to sell more than a few video games to the public, one had to convince them that the latest issue of Space xTurkeys was different than the last one. If we were restricted to the days of Pong, there was an extremely limited number of |symbols to be arranged. The increase in technology in the form of better graphics created a vast of array of symbols, of 0a more complex code. An example of this was the introduction of colour: if we think of baseball, the @identification of two teams by colour greatly improves theplayability.  With Pong, the only value that the symbols had was in the play of the game, for they were only ordinary rectangles. But withthese new video games, they had the capacity to have their "  xxx"  Tplace to account for the output. When psychologists speak of $a "black box," they assume that nothing is known about what @is inside the organism or about the functioning, say, of the central nervous system. However, correlations between input and output may enable certain inferences to be made, if notabout the mechanism inside the box, about how it works.  Y_0 `The input process is usually referred to as the formulation (or, YJ0 hin a particular linguistics context, the generation) of the message. A source, we say, "formulates" a message, but <precisely how a human does so is not known and will remain rather enigmatic until the electrochemical machinery of the 0brain/mind, in its immense complexity, is far better  understood. The human being, it seems reasonable to 0postulate, follows, by and large, generative rules to create an \enormous number of novel messages appropriate to an indefinite variety of contexts, but how the human being is able `to acomplish this is still an utter mystery. Detailed charting of (the highly intricate and continuously readapting pathways within the threeandahalf pound globe of tissue under the 0skull known as the human brain remains a task for the future.  4The table shown here (Fig. 2.1) summarizes possible sign xsources. Engineers sometimes speak of two kinds of sources: discrete and continuous. A discrete source produces messages ("letters") selected out of an enumberable set of possibilities (called an "alphabet"); such a source might produce, for example, a communication in written English. A continuous Lsource is one that is not discrete say, one that produces acommunication in spoken English or as a piece of music. H; xxx$  hH G+xxH #Xw P7[hXP#SOURCES OF SIGNS   xP$#c P7P#Inorganic Objects  ,Organic Substances  xPb$NaturalManufactured Extraterrestrialhh^Terrestrial  xP$` `  Homo Sapienshh^Speechless Creatures ` ` Components Organisms Components Organisms  xP$  Figure 2.1. Modified after Thomas A. Sebeok, Contributions to the xP$  Doctrine of Signs, 2d ed. (Lanham: University Press of America, 1985),p. 27, table 3.  Y2 0 #Xw P7[hXP#In the communication disciplines, as throughout the life Tsciences, it is both legitimate and necessary to raise questions  teleonomic in aspect. Accordingly, it is proper to ask: for what purposes do sources formulate messages? The functions of messages are various. They are enddirected in the same objective sense in which all animal behaviour has a goal: an Tanimal ingests food to gain materials and energy; its digestive apparatus and enzymes exist and operate as they do in order to Tpromote that goal of survival. Messages embody information biologically or socially important for organisms; they are 0formulated, among other reasons, in order to be "transferred" Y50to another entity, here named the destination.  The destination is the area at which the messages flow initiated |by the source terminates. Its workings can, once again, be lroughly segmented into two temporally successive processes, 0but in reverse: an earlier one, whose characteristics are more or less understood, and an ultimate one usually referred to as Y0 the interpretation of the message the manner of which shades off into unfathomed dusk; in this case, the rightmost portion,or rear end, of the diagram (Fig. 2.3) would have to be darkened."j xxx"Ԍ  @In our example above, there is no role for the analogon to play. The image on the screen is merely a demarkation of a Y0 $system of rules, an "iconic code"4. The shapes on the screen  do not depict anything: they are quite arbitrary. An example of this arbitrariness is a later development of the Pong concept, called Breakout, where instead of two paddles there was only Hone, at the bottom of the screen. The rest of the screen were filled with different coloured blocks which had to be hit by bouncing the ball with the paddle. These blocks had no $meaning: they did not simulate anything. They merely acted Xas visual system of markings, similar to more conventionalgames such as checkers, tictactoe, or bingo.  The idea of iconic codes reigns without contest in the era of Pong because the computer technology at the time did not have the power to simulate reality. It would not be for several years that even an attempt would be made, and it is only recently has the analogon had even a fighting chance in the video gameworld. LLq  If video games had stayed at the level of Pong, they would @have died quickly. Soon after, the dawn of a new type of Y0 video game, the simulation,5 appeared. A simulation was a lsystem of code which modeled reality, in the same way that a mathematical equation might model a physical phenomina like gravity. Again, the image plays a different role than the photograph in that its job was not to depict reality but to model xit. The image that appeared on the screen was a metaphorical Hpicture, made of objects on the screen which represented theobjects being simulated. Some of the first examples of this HN xxx$S tf dIxxH  reality was movement, and even that was limited to moving up lor down. Even the "ball" had little simulation value: it did not operate like a ball at all in that it only bounced in ninetydegree angles. a Xy1i (ZZpong.wpgXy洘 S0#XyPr 0U qXP## XhP^6U qXP#Figure 1: Pong# Xx3_ @DUwX@# Xxxx832i Aa1` ` ` ^ ]X  The source is normally incapable of launching its message in Xthe electrochemical shape in which we surmise that it was initially formulated. The reason is that each source is linked Y0 with each destination via some sort of medium, or channel, a passageway through which the two are capable of establishing and sustaining their communicative exchange. An example of a channel is the link postulated between a pair of communicating Native Americans, such that one, the source, Da2moves a blanket over a fire, while in smoke (a form of a2electromagnetic energy). Any form of energy propagation can, pa2in fact, be exploited for purposes of message transmission. a2Possible channels are displayed in Fig. 2.2. a2  Y 0a2#c P7P#LLq#Xw P7[hXP#Channels a2  xP$a2#c P7P#LLqMatter#c P7P#!!T$T$&&9Energy a2  xP9$a2Gases Liquids Solids!!Chemical&&9Physical a2  xP$a2LLqProximal Distal!!Optical Tactile Acoustic Electric Thermal etc. a2 a2LLqReflected daylight Bioluminescence Air Water Solids a2  xP$  a2Figure 2.2 Modified after Thomas A. Sebeok, Contributions to the Doctrine xP$ $ a2of Signs, 2d ed. (Lanham: University Press of America, 1985), p. 30, tablea24. a2  Y 0 a2#Xw P7[hXP#It is not known how, specifcally, the messages are constructed a2and stacked in a hierarchy, or how their meanings are "agreed a2to" (that is, coded). Neurophysiologists surmise that, no matter what a message may correspond to in the external `world, internally it is linked by chemical exchanges, probably functioning synchronously in various regions, which may be closely adjacent to or quite remote from one another on thetwodimensional cortical sheet of higher animals, including the~hxxx$xkgxx32i Aa1` ` ` ^ ]~  @human. The transformation from this unconscious parallel processing to an externalized serial string, as in speaking or writing or gesturing, must be effected by surface organ systems Lԩ in the human being, for example, the socalled organs ofspeech.  Yv0 This crucial transduction is called encoding. Encoding happens at the interface between internal and external message systems, which, in a broad sense, stand in a specular relationship, in ahomology of spatiotemporal transition probablities.  `When the destination receives the encoded message which, because of entropy (the measure of disorder in the system), can `never be identical with the message formulated and launched by the source another transduction, followed by a series of Hfurther transformations, must be effected before this message can be interpreted. The pivotal reconversion is called Y{0decoding.  4"Transduction" refers to the neurobiological transmutation lfrom one form energy to another, such as a photon undergoes when impinging on the vertebrate retina: we know that it entrains impulses in the optic nerve that change rhodopsin (a pigment in the retinal rods of the eyes), through four intermediate chemical stages, from one state to another. A hmessage is said to be "coded" when the source and the ldestination are "in agreement" on a set of transformation rulesused throughout the exchange.  `The kind of code selected by the source depends crucially on the total sensory equipment at its disposal. Plainly, it would be abortive for an animal that is mute as the great majorityof them are to broadcast accoustically coded messages to its "$xxx"  image, as it becomes more and more obvious that both the idea of the analogon and the idea of the coded image are somehow both needed in the understanding of the modern use of theimage.  One of the areas in which this is apparent is in the world of Xvideo games. Video games are one of the most pervasive forms of entertainment in the North American world.  Nintendo has become a common word for children around the globe. Furthermore, video games (along with pornography) are the leaders in multimedia technology. For the semiotician, video games represent a unique combining of cinematic analogon and a system of codes founded in gameplay. By examining video games, we can see that there is room for both  the code and the analogon, for both play an important role inthe operation of video games.  The video game industry was established in the late 1970's, even before personal computers were appearing. The first video game for the home was entitled Pong, and it consisted of a bar of light at each end of the television screen which (represented paddles, and a rectangular blip of light which `represented a ball. The object was to keep the "ball" in place by bouncing off one's "paddle". There was nothing else to the game: it had no bells or whistles, and it became quickly `boring. What is important about Pong in our discussion is that video games really started as games, and had no sense of (simulation. The objects on the screen were no more than markers for a particular system of rules, in the same way that a set of chess men mark out a system of playing chess. The objects could look totally different and their roles would betotally unaffected. The only connection they had to ordinary H xxx$ttxxH  thing as a perfect analogon for all images are mediated by acode:   XD  Y0 <x XThe theory of the photo as an analogue of <Lreality has been abandoned, even by those who <once upheld it we know that it is necessary to <@be trained to recognise the photographic image.  <We know that the image which takes shape on <celluloid is analogous to the retinal image, but <not to that which we perceive. We know that Y 0 <x sensory phenomina are transcribed, in the <Lphotograph emulsion, in such a way that even if <there is a causal link with the real phenomena, <dthe graphic images formed can be considered as < wholly arbitrary with respect to these Y0 <@phenomina.... every image is born of a series of W0successive transcriptions.2D  The image, and everything else, is mediated by a code. The idea that we can look out and see a visual analogon is dmisguided, because, claims Eco, we actually are reading asystem of iconic codes.  LIn the world of the 1960's, the image was beginning to be manipulated. Barthes writes about various techniques that cut, crop, or otherwise change the objective reality of the Y0 analogon.3 But in the 1990's, the debate is not as simple. The photographic image has become more and less than a simple window on reality, more in the sense that it has been reproduced and contextually enlarged and less in the sense that the image has lost its wholeness as it has been subjected to $cropping, appropriation, and disection. The issue of whetherBarthes or Eco is right has lossed in this confusion of the "&xxx"